Film Theory Outline Essay Example for Free

Film Theory Outline Essay From the very beginning of film, theorists have tried to dissect or understand the nature of the new medium of art. As a result various theories of film have emerged, such as feminist, auteur, psychoanalytical, Marxist, Editing and Structuralist. This essay attempts to give an outline of these various theories. One of the first theories to emerge is Editing theory, coming from the context of early Russian cinema. A key event in this regard is the experiment carried out by the film-maker Lev Kuleshov in 1918, in which he demonstrated that what the viewer perceives depends on how images are juxtaposed with each other through inter-cutting. See more: essay apa format Thus, when a human close-up is juxtaposed with a bowl of soup, the perception is of hunger, but when juxtaposed with a shot of a coffin the same close-up is perceived to express grief. Kuleshov concluded that juxtaposition was crucial towards the effect, and thus advocated the use montage in film-making. Other film-makers like Sergei Eisenstein played close attention to these findings, and made use of them in his masterpieces of montage, such as Battleship Potemkin and October. He also spelled out a comprehensive film theory based on editing in a highly influential essay from the late twenties. In it he outlined he various categories of editing, such as metric, rhythmic, tonal, overtonal, and intellectual. For example, with intellectual montage a scene may be inter-cut with something immediately unrelated, but which nevertheless works as metaphor is a more profound sense. The above came to constitute soviet montage theory, which was in contrast to the Hollywood system of continuity editing. Montage is a very visible component of film, whereas continuity editing aims to make inter-cutting invisible, so that the viewer may concentrate on the flow of the narrative in an easy way. Since the fifties a parallel theory of editing has emerged in the West which embodies the Hollywood ethos. In the same essay Eisenstein proposed a Hegelian interpretation of film montage, and which came to form the basis of Marxist film theory. He suggested that montage worked by the principle of the Hegelian dialectic, where thesis is said to beget antithesis, and are resolved in the end through synthesis. For example, when human close up is inter-cut with a glass of water, the viewer interprets this as thirst. If the face is the subject, then its antithesis is the object of vision, i. e. the glass of water. ‘Thirst’ is merely the synthesis of the two. It is present in neither of the two shots in consideration, yet emerges form the inter-cutting of the two. Of course, it was through the Hegelian dialectic that Marx had derived his famous concept of the proletariat revolution, and Marxism was the avowed principle of the Bolshevists. Therefore, it is not surprising that Eisenstein’s theories found a favorable audience in the Soviet Union. Indeed, it was instrumental in forming of Socialist realism, which became the state sponsored ideology in art. Marxist film theory soon found itself as defined in opposition to capitalistic and bourgeoisie art, in which the narrative of the protagonist finds prominence. Eisenstein’s films attempt to obliterate the presence of the protagonist, concentrating instead on the clash of images towards creating a larger ideological narrative. Even then he was accused by the authorities for not championing the workers, and for indulging in the internal mechanics of film, which was deemed to be a kind of formalism. Marxist theory held that the purpose of art is to overcome all ‘forms’ towards dialectical purification. Formalism was felt to be a bourgeoisie component. Marxist theory, as it has flourished both in the East and the West, concerns itself with dissecting films in order discredit bourgeoisie forms, usually those emerging from the Hollywood system. A native western theory of film was late in developing, and a crucial starting point was the theories developed by Andre Bazin, as editor of the French film magazine Cahiers du cinema. Up to that point films were seen as merely commercial vehicles, and Hollywood had evolved into a mighty and well groomed machine that churned films for the pleasure of the masses. Analyzing these films Bazin came to the conclusion that it was the director who left the most characteristic stamp, and as illustration he held up the work of directors like Alfred Hitchcock and Howard Hawks. He advocated that directors infuse their personal vision into the films under their charge, in order that they become the complete authors, which is the ideal state. This came to be known as the Auteur theory of film, which was given a more formal presentation by Francois Truffaut. Directors were described as using the camera as a pen towards composing their films. Another significant idea of Bazin’s was that film should aim for â€Å"objective reality†. This was in opposition to prevalent theory based on montage, which said that object of film is to manipulate reality. This instrumental approach led to the formulation of Structuralist film theory, which examines the structure of the components of film as they come together meaningfully. Instead of the dialectical approach of Eisenstein, the analysis takes into account conventional devices that have come to acquire meaning. The components that come into play are camera angle, lighting, juxtaposition, shot duration, cultural context etc. Meaning is usually accounted for by convention, and conventions change according to social and economic circumstances. For example, the highly commercial nature of Hollywood films has created the Institutional Mode of Representation, in which cinematic devices are used that make film viewing easy and exciting. For this reason it incorporates the established ideology with little departure from the norm. Other interpretations overlook the mechanics of production and instead considered the viewer as the focus of study. Psychoanalytic film theory offers such an interpretation. It is largely influenced by the views of the French philosopher Jacques Lacan regarding the child’s ‘mirror stage of development’. According to this theory the developing child endeavors to see a reflection of itself in all the objects it encounters. Psychoanalytic film theory replicates this situation with the viewer of film. The viewer is always looking for self-identification in the process of watching a film, and in this sense uses the medium as a mirror. It is usually the male protagonist who provides the focus of this identification, and functions as a conduit by which the desires of the viewer are played out. The film is said to have constructed a ‘gaze’ for the benefit of the viewer. Sometimes the gaze is simply the viewpoint of the protagonist; at other times, in the more graphic sequences, the viewer is allowed to gaze directly. Psychoanalytic theory is careful to point out that such identification is merely illusion, and therefore it differs from the identification of the child growing up, whose identifications come to form tangible character. Feminist film theory takes psychoanalytical theory a step further, in that it interprets the gaze as scopophilia, or ‘the desire to observe in secret’, which is also known as voyeurism. Such desire is sexual in origin, and feminist theory is framed in the context of the man wanted to gaze at the woman. Such a theory provides a ready explanation of the objectification of woman in film, a phenomena that has been noticed from the very beginnings of the medium. As in psychoanalytical theory, the male protagonist provides the focus of identification, but his specific desire is to objectify the women in the film, a desire which is vicariously shared by the viewer. There are three levels of objectification. First there is the camera’s point of view, then that of the protagonist, and finally that of the viewer himself, who is allowed to gaze at the women directly. Critics of this theory point out that the female viewer is not taken into account, for women also go to see the same films, and they enjoy them too. However Laura Mulvey has given convincing arguments to explain female enjoyment. She says that it is either through a masochistic identification, or a transsexual one. In the first the female takes secret pleasure in male domination. In the second, the female identifies with the male protagonist, and thus shares in the pleasure that men take. However, she is also continuously slipping back into her female identity, which is said to be a mask that she wears. Identification with the male pushes her uncomfortably close to the image of the subjected women, and the masquerade allows her to maintain a distance from it. Feminist film theory is a harsh criticism of the norms of cinema, which is also blamed on the patriarchal norms of society. The advocacy is to make films that overcome the norms, and therefore to make films that are free from female objectification.

Tina Modotti :: Essays Papers

Tina Modotti Even though Tina Modotti is considered a Mexican photographer because her artistic career was mostly based in Mexico and the American Southwest, she was born in Undine, Italy in 1896. She moved to California in 1913 and was employed in various labor-intensive factory jobs. She was first known mainly because of her relationship with photographer Edward Weston, for whom she was a model in the 1920s; but her abstract, portrait, and still-life photographs â€Å"showed her to be an accomplished photographer in her own right† (encyclopedia). In the 1920s, Modotti was active with Mexican revolutionaries, joining the Mexican Communist Party, and having close connections with the Mexican Artists’ Union. When her lover, Cuban revolutionary Julio Antonio Mella, was found murdered in 1928, she was accused but acquitted of complicity in his murder (encyclopedia). Modotti was eventually deported to Berlin because of her revolutionary ties when there was an assassination attempt on the Mexican president Pascal Ortiz Rubio. From Berlin, she moved to Moscow in 1931 and abandoned photography temporarily in favor of revolutionary causes there. She also lived in France and Spain before returning to Mexico clandestinely in 1939. When back in Mexico, she continued photography and political work until her death of a heart attack in 1942 (encyclopedia). Most of her surviving famous photographs were from her period in Mexico between 1923 and 1926. The photograph entitled â€Å"Staircase, 1925† is a good example of an abstract architectural image. Composition features in this work include the use of repetition of a line pattern, and perspective. â€Å"It is a picture of space becoming a pattern – a construction of lines and triangles stretched very tightly towards two dimensions – in which depth is both precisely described and subtly denied† (Szarkowski). It bears a resemblance to the drawings of M.C. Escher, where the eye is tricked into seeing an impossibly three-dimensional object. Here, an obviously three-dimensional subject is shortened to appear flat, due to the lack of contrast between near and far distances. The photograph â€Å"Flor de Manita, 1925† shows great equity between figure and ground shapes. It is a plant that has large sweeping curves, but because of the darkness of the subject and the lightness of the background, if viewed from a distance, the nature of the subject is obscured and one sees only white and black shapes that harmoniously coexist with one another.

ECO365 Week 2 Simulation Essay

Simulation The supply and demand factors are essential to the work of economics. The use of these demand curves help businesses to maximize profits and the supply curve depicts the best price for the most product. These statistics are shown on a graph, which changes according to the supply and demand in a particular market (Colander, 2010). This simulation is an example of Good life property apartment rental supply and demand. This paper will discuss two microeconomics and two macroeconomics principles or concepts from the simulation. Also it will identify at least one shift of the supply curve and one shift of the demand curve in the simulation. In addition, it will discuss the effects of supply and demand in the workplace. Last, Relating to the simulation, it will explain how the price elasticity of demand affects a consumer’s purchasing and the firm’s pricing strategy. Two microeconomics and two macroeconomics principles Within this simulation are multiple examples of microeconomics and macroeconomics. One example of microeconomics is Good life property raising or lowering its rental rate for the apartments. Because it is a business decision, it falls under microeconomics. Another example is the percentage of inventory that Good Life has allotted for rental of their inventory. Macroeconomics deals more with decisions made higher than the business itself. For example, the increase of income caused by the addition of Lintech, is macroeconomics. Also the government imposing a cap on the monthly rent of 1550 dollars for two-bedroom apartments is a macroeconomic decision. One shift of the supply curve and one shift of the demand curve The supply curve is represented by a gradually increasing line on the graph of the scenario. The line represents the price and quantity for which apartments are purchased. For example, a shift in the supply curve was witnessed when  the new business entered the area. The addition of Lintech working facility prompted more consumers to want apartments. The supply curve moved left to indicate less supply on hand. The downward slope on the graph represents the demand curve. As recently explained, the price and demand are captured on this line. The increase of rent caused the demand curve to shift to the left, indicating a decrease in demand (Colander, 2010). Effects of supply and demand in the workplace In the petroleum industry, the price is relatively elastic. The demand of work from day-to-day is determined by the consumers demand for that product. Some days will require 12 hours of service whereas others will require eight hours of service to complete customer deliveries. With respect to supply, a shortage would negatively affect companies that are already customers. The shortage may increase price temporarily or an increase in the general cost of oil may increase price long term. The idea behind macro and microeconomics help to understand the impact that supply and demand have on the economy. Companies make educated decisions on a products life cycle according to the demand for that item. The equilibrium point (the intersecting point on supply and demand) is best suited for a product or service. How the price elasticity of demand affects a consumer’s purchasing and the firm’s pricing strategy The elasticity of price affects a company’s price tactics and consumer purchasing actions. If a products price changes, customer purchasing habits may rise or fall accordingly (Colander, 2010). If the demand for a particular apartment increases, as seen in the scenario, Good life properties will be able to raise rent rates in order to capitalize on the higher demand. On the other hand, customers may not purchase as much with a higher rent rate. As a result of increased rates, customers may seek alternatives such as conventional homes. This is how price elasticity effects consumer purchasing and the price point set by companies. The price for items or services may be too high which would cripple the potential earnings. A look at the supply and demand charts depicts the best price point. Good life property management have maximized its earnings and optimized its rental rates by using the supply and demand curves. Considering the petroleum industry, supply, and demand directly affect the price. Price elasticity is also a factor to consider when setting  the price for services or products. References Colander, D. C. (2010). Economics (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved April 11, 2013 from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Internationalisation of Nicolites e-cigarette in India - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2340 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Case study Did you like this example? Introduction There are a number of factors that compel businesses to trade and market their products internationally. For instance, international marketing enables businesses to (1) increase their customer base and market share, (2) minimise their reliance on any single market and (3) avail benefits of becoming multinational brand (Buckley and Ghauri, 2004). Over the last decade and a half, international marketing has become substantial (Hill, 2012); to the extent that consumers barely notice the fact that a majority of the products they consume routinely are either sourced from international markets or contain components that are sourced from international markets. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Internationalisation of Nicolites e-cigarette in India" essay for you Create order Successful international marketing requires a diligent strategic planning process involving the assessment of the business environment and suitability of the target market. A conductive business environment of the target market and the presence of a lucrative market gap render a target market as suitable (Tallman, 2007). Following this assessment, a brand intending to internationalise needs to plan and execute the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organisational objectives (Sak and Shaw, 2004 p. 3). This essay relates to the internationalisation of Nicolites, the company that produces Nicolites electronic cigarettes in the UK to the Indian market. This essay evaluates the suitability of India as a selected target market for the expansion of Nicolites. It also evaluates a suitable entry method for Nicolites in India and suggests marketing strategies for the product as well. Market Opportunity Despite being widely considered as hazardous to health, smoking of cigarettes prevails at large across the globe. Therefore, any measures that can reduce the consumption of cigarettes, including providing an alternative for smoking are widely seen as a positive development. Provision of an alternative for smoking tobacco based cigarettes is the core marketing concept behind Nicolites e-cigarette. Nicolites e-cigarette was first introduced in 2007 in UK (Nicolites, 2015). Nicolites e-cigarette does not have any tobacco whatsoever, and hence it is free of more than 4000 known toxic chemicals and substances present in a regular cigarette (Nicolites, 2015). Nicolites e-cigarette is an innovative product that offers smokers a right alternative for regular cigarette through a true simulation of smoking experience which is cleaner, safer and healthier. Despite having a glowing red tip depicting a real flame, Nicolites e-cigarette does not require any flame or fire to burn. Moreover, i t does not cause any unpleasant smoke and odor, or gather smoky residue on walls, clothes, skin and hair of the users (Nicolites, 2015). Justification and Evaluation of the Target Market According to the Datamonitor Market Insights report titled Tobacco in India (2011), the overall tobacco industry in India was estimated to be worth approximately INR 58,730 crores (or $10 bn), in 2009. During the period 2004-2009, tobacco industry in India grew at an average of 8.5 percent; whilst during 2009-2014, it grew at an average of 6.5 percent (Tobacco Free Kids, 2015). The overall tobacco market in India is dominated by smokeless tobacco sales which constitutes 75 percent of the market (Tobacco Free Kids, 2015). Out of the remaining 25 percent tobacco market, 20 percent tobacco consumption comprises of smoking bidi, which is a hand-rolled, small, thin cigarette (Tobacco Free Kids, 2015). Thus manufactured cigarettes form only 5 percent of the market. Despite cigarettes being not one of the most popular tobacco products in India, Indians consumed 96 billion cigarettes in the year 2014, making the country the 6 largest cigarette consuming nation in the world and an important target for international tobacco companies (Tobacco Free Kids, 2015). A large, growing product market of cigarettes in India signals a lucrative product market for alternate products such as Nicolites e-cigarette. Thus it is established that India has a huge potential for alternative products to cigarettes such as Nicolites e-cigarette. After establishing the existence a lucrative market for Nicolites e-cigarettes in India, it is also important to assess whether the overall business environment of India is conductive for international brands. In terms of political environment, the Indian market has become liberal following the reforms in 1991 (Nuruzzaman, 2011). However, the capital market in India remains vulnerable to political changes (Nuruzzaman, 2011). In terms of economy, India has been growing steadily over the last decade. Last year, the Indian economy underwent a 7.5 percent growth (Ayres, 2015). According to the World Bank estimates, Indian economy has become the worl ds third largest economy in purchasing power parity terms (Ayres, 2015). The country has an escalating middle class which will continue to drive its economy and demand. Socially, India has a very diverse population in ethnic, religion, culture and socio-economic terms (Nuruzzaman, 2011). These factors can either be advantageous or disadvantageous for an international brand depending upon how it deals with them. Technologically, the urban centers in India are advancing with most of the urban middle class Indians having access to internet and media technologies through which branding and marketing communication activities can be pursued (Nuruzzaman, 2011). The economic and technological factors of India indicate towards a favorable business environment for Nicolites e-cigarettes. As for the political factors, any adversities posed by the political environment can be easily negated by choosing a right market entry strategy by Nicolites e-cigarette. The social factors of India are unlik ely to be impactful upon Nicolites as the company will most likely target a small niche market in India. Market Entry Selecting an appropriate international marketing entry strategy is a critical important decision within the process of internationalisation as it can be vital for the sustainable competitive advantage of the company (Buckley and Ghauri, 2004). There are many ways in which a brand can enter a foreign market. These can categorized as (1) direct production direct entry, acquisition, and joint-ventures (2) indirect production licensing, franchising, technical agreements, service contracts, etc. or (3) exports indirect, direct agent/distributor, direct branch/subsidiary, etc. (Rugman, 2009). The suitability of one of the above market entry modes for Nicolites depends upon the combination of several internal and external factors (Koch, 2001). For instance, Nicolites is a relatively young, medium size company with around one hundred employees (Nicolites, 2015). The company currently operates only across UK and does not have any international operations. The limited size of the comp any and subsequently its resources coupled with its inexperience in internationalisation makes it very unlikely for Nicolites to adopt a direct production as a market entry method. Direct production methods are the most capital and resource intensive methods of market entry requiring highest levels of commitment from the internationalising firm (Ireland, et al. 2011). Moreover, although Nicolites is the largest UKs e-cigarette brand (Evening Standard, 2013); it currently does not have the global brand equity and popularity of a multinational company. Therefore, Nicolites is less likely to be able to attract investors to operate franchises in India or secure favorable license agreements for indirect production. Resultantly, the internal factors of the company oblige it to pursue internationalisation through exports. Exporting local products to a foreign market is perhaps the most simplest and common methods of entry in international markets. Exporting involves sending goods from the home country to another for distribution, sales and services (Ireland, et al. 2008). Since the amount of goods exported can vary, exporting enables internationalising firms to move into an international market in a controlled manner that is, without risking high capital or making intensive commitments initially. This gradual process of market entry provides internationalising firms with the opportunity to explore the prospects of the target market and gain knowledge and experience before making large investments (McDonald and Burton, 2002). It is noteworthy that exporting strategy is vulnerable to exporting tariffs and can often face supply chain/logistics challenges in getting their goods to the international markets and eventually to the end-consumers (Ireland, et al. 2008). Additionally, exporting firms may also face difficulties in managing and dealing with local distributors (Ireland, et al. 2008). In case of NIcolites, exporting is the seemingly the most appropriate m arket entry method, as this method will negate any major risks of failure by allowing the company to gain experience in many facets of international business and particularly learn about the Indian market. This method will incur the least amount of initial costs for internationalisation. Considering that Nicolites products are value added finished goods, Nicolites will find it most suitable to continue to use its existing production facilities and supply chain to manufacture e-cigarettes and export it to international destinations. In order to overcome the challenges related to distribution and sales activities, Nicolites can hire its own local managers to avert the disadvantages of underperforming agents in a foreign market. As for the concerns regarding export tariffs, this is less likely to affect the business strategy of Nicolites in India as currently the Indian government has levied heavy taxes on all tobacco products (Narayan, 2015) which make tobacco free Nicolites e-cigaret te an attractive alternative for smokers. Segmentation Targeting customer segments in marketing strategy enables firms to decide ways for acquiring competitive advantage (Proctor, 2000). A market segment is a fraction of the whole target market that has one or more unique attributes that provide it a distinction and sets them apart from other consumer segments (Proctor, 2000 p.24) . Customer segments can be identified through demographic variables such as sex, age groups, family life cycle, literacy, earning, religion, ethnicity, etc.; and geographic variable which divides customer segments according to their localities (Proctor 2000). In India, Nicolites should target upper-middle and upper class consumers specifically from young adults and adult age groups who are open to new technologies and brands from various professional classifications living in upscale urban centers of major metropolises. Marketing Mix After identifying the targeted consumer segments, a firm should then determine a suitable targeting strategy (Kotler, 2000). By applying the marketing mix model in the Indian context, Nicolites can adapt its marketing strategy for Indian consumers. Internationalising firms have a choice of targeting their customers through either a standarised strategy in which standarised products are sold all over the world or through adaptation in which products are localised to meet the preferences of each target market. In the current context, it is suggested to apply a mix of both these targeting strategies. Product Nicolites has a trusted reputation as a brand and offers a high level of choice to its consumers in terms of strength and flavour of its products (Evening Standard, 2013). Moreover, Nicolites uses most advance cartomiser technology for e-cigarettes unlike most other brands which use 3 piece models that are associated with poor quality and leak (Evening Standard, 2013). Therefore, it is suggested that Nicolites should export the same high quality products in India to target its affluent consumers; although the company can bring in some variation in the strength and flavour of its e-cigarettes according to local preferences. Price From the four basic pricing strategies that is (1) premium pricing, (2) penetration pricing, (3) economy pricing, and (4) price skimming (Kotler, 2000) the current pricing strategy of Nicolites can be termed as premium. In India, the company should pursue the same pricing strategy to target its affluent consumers. Place In the UK, Nicolites works in conjuncture with a number of high street retail firms such as Tesco, Superdrug, WH Smiths, Co-op, Sainsbury, etc. as well as local newsagents and online (Evening Standard, 2013). Partnering with the National Federation of Retail Newsagents (NFRN), Nicolites has been filling the shelves of local corner shops across the country in pursuit of penetration and consolidation (Ansoff, 1965) growth strategy. In India, Nicolites can similarly distribute its products through high street retailers in upscale posh area of urban centers. Promotion Nicolites pursues a push strategy (Kotler, 2000) in UK in which it tries to make its e-cigarettes available in as many high street and corner shops as possible to penetrate the market. However, in India, it should focus on creating a niche market of affluent consumers out of the 5% consumers of manufactured cigarettes through a pull strategy (Kotler, 2000). In this way, it will be able to establish a superior international brand image in the minds of its consumers and increase its attractiveness among them. Conclusion This essay concludes that in order to expand the consumer base of the company and negate its reliance on a single market, Nicolites e-cigarette should internationalise its brand and enter the lucrative Indian market which is the 6th largest consumer of cigarettes in the world through exports. India has good market prospects for alternative cigarette products and a conductive environment for international businesses. By using a mix of standardised and localised marketing strategies, Nicolites should target the upper-middle and affluent class consumers of the country to pursue its international ambitions. References Ansoff, H. (1965), Corporate Strategy. New York: McGraw-Hill Ayres, A (2015). Economic Growth and Indias Global Rise. Forbes. Available from https://www.forbes.com/sites/alyssaayres/2015/08/17/economic-growth-and-indias-global-rise/ Buckley, P. and Ghauri, P. (2004) Globalization, Economic Geography and International Business, Journal of International Business Studies 35(2), 1-18. Datamonitor Market Insights, (20011).Tobacco in India An insight into the Indian tobacco market. Datamonitor Report Published: Feb 11 | Code: DMCM4789 Evening Standard (2013). Nicolites officially becomes the largest UK brand of electronic cigarette. Available from https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/nicolites-officially-becomes-the-largest-uk-brand-of-electronic-cigarette-8463753.html Hill, C. (2012) International Business. New York: McGraw Hill Education. Ireland, R. Hoskisson, R. and Hitt, M. (2008). Understanding Business Strategy: Concepts and Cases. Mason: Cengage Learning. Ire land, R. Hoskisson, R. and Hitt, M. (2011). Understanding Business Strategy: Concepts Plus. Mason: Cengage Learning. Koch, A. J. (2001). Factors influencing market and entry mode selection: Developing the MEMS model. Marketing Intelligence Planning. 19:5 351-361 Kotler, P (2000) Marketing Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall McDonald, F. and Burton, F. (2002) International Business. London: Cengage Learning. Narayan, A (2015). Indian Tobacco Giant Tries Short Cigarettes as Taxes Hit Demand. Bloomberg. Available from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-15/india-tobacco-giant-tries-short-cigarettes-as-taxes-hit-demand Nuruzzaman, A. (2011). Indian Futures Market: An Analysis. Research Scholar, Department Business Administration, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh 7(2) Dec., 2011 Proctor, T (2000), Strategic Marketing: An Introduction, London: Routledge Rugman, A (2009). The Oxford Handbook of International Business. New York: Oxford Un iversity Press. Sak, O and Shaw, J., (2004). Process of International Marketing. International marketing: analysis and strategy (4th ed.) London: Routledge. Tallman, S. (2007). A New Generation in International Strategic Management. Massachusetts: Edward Elgar. Tobacco Free Kids (2015). The Global Cigarette Industry. Available from https://global.tobaccofreekids.org/files/pdfs/en/Global_Cigarette_Industry_pdf.pdf